Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought
- Main article:
Hindu philosophy
The six Astika or orthodox (accepting the authority of
the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are
Nyaya,
Vaisheshika,
Samkhya,
Yoga,
Purva Mimamsa (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and
Uttara Mimamsa (also called 'Vedanta').
The non-Vedic schools are called Nastika, or heterodox, and refer to
Buddhism,
Jainism and
Lokayata. The schools that continue to affect Hinduism today are
Purva Mimamsa,
Yoga,
and
Vedanta. See
Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance
of
Samkhya,
Nyaya,
and
Vaisheshika.
Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of the Purva ("earlier")
Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas.
Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism
was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its
adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that
it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. This empirical and
eminently sensible manner of religious application is key to the
Sanatana/Hindu Dharma and was especially championed by rationalists
like
Adi Sankara and
Swami Vivekananda. For greater depth, please see
Purva
Mimamsa
Yoga
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A Sadhu (Hindu ascetic) meditating in padmasana (lotus
pose); Used with permission from www.kamat.com
The Yoga
system is generally considered to have arisen from the
Samkhya philosophy. The yoga referred to here, however,
is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on
the sage
Patanjali's extremely influential text entitled the
Yoga Sutra, which is essentially a compilation and
systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before.
Upanishads and
Bhagavad Gita are also indispensable literature in the study of
Yoga.
The most significant difference from
Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the
concept of
Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview but
also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This
is because Ishvara is the only aspect of
purusha (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become
entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also
utilizes the
Brahman/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth
in the
Upanishads, adopting Vedantic
monist
concepts. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as
moksha
or
samadhi. It, like the
Upanishads, seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing
other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical
(body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the
'one supreme truth.' See
Yoga
for an in-depth look at its history.
Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the
cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for
a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of
faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the
Upanishads and their commentary by
Badarayana, the
Vedanta Sutras, Vedanta thought split into three groups,
initiated by the thinking and writing of
Adi Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to
changes affected by
Vedantic thought, which focused on meditation, morality and
centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless
societal distinctions like
caste.
See
Vedanta for greater depth.
Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to
as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness.
Its consolidator was
Shankara (788-820).
Shankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings
of the
Upanishads and his own
guru
Gaudapada. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed
the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual
reality of Brahman in which
Atman
(the individual soul) and
Brahman (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is
not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and
meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of
truth. Adi Shankara denounced
caste
and meaningless
ritual
as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true
devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. See
Advaita for more.
Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita Vedanta
Ramanuja (1040
- 1137)
was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the
supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects:
Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only
independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for
their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality,
Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.
Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta
Like Ramanuja,
Madhva (1199
- 1278)
identified god with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely
dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation
between the ultimate godhead and the individual soul, and the system
is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.
Alternative cultures of worship
The Bhakti schools
The
Bhakti (Devotional) school is takes its name from the Hindu term
that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as
the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds
appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap
into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains
the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often
reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of
people. Seen as a form of
Yoga,
or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness
of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor
in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all
change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee
as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to
fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even
transcended, through the love of God. The
Bhakti
movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of
faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical
needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the
greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient
times.
The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu
tradition has been through puja, or ritual devotion,
frequently using the aid of a
murti
(statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational
prayer in the form of
mantras.
Devotional songs called
bhajans
(written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries),
kirtan
(praise), and
arti (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes
sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic
system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with
God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the
bhakta, through a growing connection with God, is eventually
able to eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the
bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.
Popular image of the universally loving and beloved Shri
Ganesh
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature,
music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed
spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial
social boundaries. See
bhakti yoga for more.
Tantrism
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John
Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are
numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as
such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox
'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its
historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda,
promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the
benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent
for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious
one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must
therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and
sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these
practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir
John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")
The word "tantra"
means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of
mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those
which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in
the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and
Yoga.
See
Tantra for more.
Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism
Ahimsa and the cow
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to
understanding the society that has arisen around some of its
principles. While
Jainism as it was practiced was certainly a major influence on
Indian society, what with its exhortation of strict
veganism and non-violence as ahimsa, the term first
appeared in the
Upanishads. Thus, an ingrained and externally motivated
influence led to the development of a large section of Hindus who
grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of
life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of
today's
Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in the
South of
India, in certain northerly states like Gujurat, and in many
Brahmin enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus,
while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a
sattwic
(purifying) lifestyle.
Those
Hindus
who do eat meat predominantly abstain from
beef,
some even going so far as to avoid leather products. This is most
likely because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent
generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on
the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel
for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity
grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while
most Hindus do not worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions
against eating beef arose long after the
Vedas
had been written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society.
It is said that
Krishna is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector
of cows), and
Shiva's
attendant is
Nandi,
the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually
followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special
occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that
most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling
meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban
cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of
India.
Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, two are
quintessentially a part of its culture and representative of its
general ethos:
Aum (ॐ) is the
standard sign of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to
all Hindu
mantras
and prayers. It contains an enormous and diverse amount of
symbolism; Hindus consider its sound and vibration to be the divine
representation of existence, encompassing all of manifold nature
into the One eternal truth. ; see
Aum for
more detail.
The swastika (卐) is an
Arya,
or noble symbol. It stands for stability within the power
of
Brahma or, alternatively, of
Surya,
the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent
many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions and their
harmonious whole. It has been used in Hinduism since the early
Vedic
culture and is still widespread in the
Indian subcontinent. Many Eastern cultures still hold it to be
sacred, especially in
India,
in spite of the recent association with
Nazism
which perverted the original meaning of this universal good-luck
symbol. See
Swastika.
Forms of worship: murtis and mantras
Murti of Lord Rama
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither
polytheistic nor strictly
monotheistic. The various gods and avatars that are worshipped
by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes
seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine Ground (Brahman),
akin but not limited to
monism,
or as one monotheistic principle like
Vishnu
or Shiva.
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman,
without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with
attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as
different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to
describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity
(ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.
While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of
Vishnu
(known as
Vaishnavs) to be at 80% and those of
Shiva
(called
Shaivaites) and
Shakti
at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast
majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the
same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are
Vishnu
(as
Krishna or
Rama),
Shiva,
Devi
(the Mother as many female deities, such as
Lakshmi,
Saraswati,
Kali
and Durga),
Ganesha,
Skanda
and
Hanuman.
Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of
pictures or icons (murti) which are said not to be God
themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for
the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of
the love and grandeur of
God. They
are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never
presumed to be the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu
image worship is a form of
iconolatry,
in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity,
as opposed to
idolatry, a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For
more details on this form of worship, see
murti.
Mantra
Reciting
mantras
is a fundamental practice that both originated and now continues in
Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa
(repitition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and
chanting style, to help meditational focus for the
sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in
expression of love for the deity, another facet of
Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the
murti.
They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke'
one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed,
Mahatma Gandhi's dying words were a two-word
mantra
to the Lord
Rama: "Hey Ram!"
The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed
Gayatri Mantra:
- ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि |
धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
- Aum bhūrbhuvasvah | tat savitūrvareṇyam |
bhargo devasya dhīmahi | dhiyo yo naha pracodayāt
A good explanation of this mantra can be found here:
[2] (http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml).
It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and
invokes the universal
Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of
the primordial Sun, only in its feminine aspect. Many Hindus till
today, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 5,000
years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river
(especially the
Ganga/Ganges).
Known as a universal mantra, it is revered as being the most
condensed form of Divine Knowledge (Veda). Its presiding principle,
Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as
Veda Mata (Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with
the Goddess of Learning and Illumination,
Saraswati.
The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve
moksha,
or liberation, through constant dedication to Satya (Truth)
and eventual realization of the
Atman
(Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or
pure love, this universal goal is achievable by all. But it should
be noted that Hinduism is a very practical faith, and is embodied in
every aspect of life. It believes equally in the temporal as in the
infinite, only it encourages perspective. The great
rishis
(Hindu sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara,
i.e. the temporal or earthly plane) who succeeds in living an
honest, loving and
dharmic
life a
jivanmukta (living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is
best expressed in the
Upanishadic dictum, Tat Twam Asi (Thou Art That), and
the ultimate aspiration as follows:
- Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor
ma aamritaam gamaya
- "Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light,
from death to immortality."
For more details, see
Mantra.
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